1. Matter (particles and kinetic theory)

Knowledge and understanding

The kinetic theory of particles

All matter is particulate in nature. The energy of the particles is manifest as motion. The average energy is proportional to the absolute temperature.

The type of motion, distance, force between particles in solids, liquids and gases should be known.

The macroscopic volume and shape properties in solids, liquids and gases should be known.

Evidence for the particulate nature of matter:

• • Brownian motion
• • Diffusion
• • Dissolution

Changes of state.

The energy of the moving particles can overcome the forces that hold particles together. This results in a change of state

• • Melting
• • Boiling
• • Solidifying

Heating and cooling curves.

These demonstrate the energy changes that occur during the phase (state) changes associated with heating and cooling.

Pure substances and mixtures

A pure substance is made up of only one type of particle. The exception is ionic compounds, which are made up of giant structures that usually are made up of two oppositely charged ions in a regular lattice.

Separation of mixtures:

The following methods for separating mixtures should be known

• • Filtration
• • Distillation
• • Evaporation
• • Chromatography
• • Physical separation (e.g. magnet for iron and sulfur)

Skills

Recognise the state of matter from diagrams/descriptions of particles.

Suggest methods for separating given mixtures.

Explain the process of state change in terms of particles.

2. Atoms (atomic structure and electron configuration)

Knowledge and understanding

Atoms have a tiny nucleus surrounded by negatively charges particles called electrons that move very fast. The Nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons.

The mass & charge properties of sub-atomic particles

• Atomic number = no. protons
• Mass number = sum (no. protons + no. neutrons)
• AZE atomic particle representation

Relative mass

Isotopes

Relative mass of elements.

Electronic arrangement in atoms

The electronic configuration first 20 elements

Skills

• Determine the number of sub-atomic particles from the AZE representation
• Determine relative mass from isotopic abundances

3. Periodic table (trends, periods, groups)

Knowledge and understanding

Elements and compounds

An element is a structure made up of one type of atom.

There are about 90 naturally occurring elements

Periodic table

Elements arranged by atomic number, represented by symbol

Periods horizontal show number of energy shells

Groups with the same outer electron no.

Groups (1-8) vertical – new numbering system uses (1-18 and includes the transition metals)

Named groups

• • Group 1 - alkali metals
• • Group 2 - alkaline earth metals
• • Group 7 - halogens
• • Group 8 - noble or inert gases

Trends

Metals (left-hand side) make up the majority non-metals on the right-hand side

Metalloids show properties of both, zig-zag line

Groups show similarities of properties

Group 1

• • Reactive metals – more reactive going down the group
• • Low melting point – decreases down the group

Halogens

• • Reactivity increases going up – fluorine is most reactive element
• • Diatomic molecules, F₂, Cl₂ etc.
• • Toxic
• • Melting point increases down the group [F₂, Cl₂, Br₂, I₂, gases]
• • Coloured elements (pale yellow, green, red, violet)
• • Good oxidising agents (reactivity increases up the group)

d’ block metals – transition metals

• • Hard metals
• • High melting point

Noble gases

• • Monatomic
• • Full outer shells
• • Unreactive

Skills

Predict the properties of an element based on its position in the periodic table

4. Bonding

Word and chemical reactions and formulas; acids, bases and pH

Knowledge and understanding

Formulas

Compounds are formed from different types of atom bonded together. They combine in specific ratios; this is known as the law of constant composition – every compound has a specific ratio of each atom called its formula.

Formulation

Use of subscripts in formulae. Valency ‘rules’.

Examples

• • Water, H₂O
• • Common salt, NaCl
• • Ammonia, NH₃
• • Methane, CH₄
• • Sulfuric acid, H₂SO₄
• • Nitric acid, HNO₃
• • Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
• • Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)₂
• • Glucose, C₆H₁₂O₆

Chemical reactions

• • Synthesis: e.g.
• • Decomposition
• • Neutralisation
• • Redox

Reactants => products

Chemical Equations

The law of conservation of matter

Balanced equations

Coefficients

State symbols

Synthesis:

• • Metal + non-metal: Na + Cl₂ → 2NaCl
• • Non-metal + non-metal: H₂ + Cl₂ → 2HCl

Decomposition

• Thermal breakdown of carbonates: CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂

Neutralisation

• • Acid + base: NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H₂O

Redox

• • Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen
• • Inter-halogen reactions

5. Acids, bases & pH

Knowledge and understanding

Definition of acids and bases

Arrhenius definition of acids – releases H⁺ ions in aqueous solution

Dissociation of simple mineral acids

pH scale [H⁺], 1-14

• • Acid pH 1-6
• • Base pH 8-14

Mineral acids

• • Sulfuric acid, H₂SO₄
• • Hydrochloric acid, HCl
• • Nitric acid, HNO₃

Organic (weak) acid

• • Ethanoic acid, CH₃COOH

Strong bases

• • Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
• • Potassium hydroxide, KOH

Weak base

• • Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)₂

Indicators

Different colours in different pH solutions.

Neutralisation

Acids neutralise bases and vice versa: H⁺ + OH^- → H₂O

Reactions of acids

• Acid + base ==> salt + water
• Acid + metal carbonate ==> salt + water + carbon dioxide
• Acid + active metal ==> salt + hydrogen

Skills

• Recognise acidity from pH level
• Suggest compounds for neutralisation
• Write balanced equations for reactions of acids

6. Bonding types

Knowledge and understanding

Simple covalent bonding

Structure

• • Shared electron pairs
• • Complete octets (full outer electron shells)
• • Non-metal to non-metal atoms
• • Small molecules

Properties (linked to structure)

• • Soluble in organic solvents
• • Poor solubility in water
• • Low melting point
• • Weak crystalline structure when solid
• • Non-conductor

Giant covalent bonding (macromolecular, network covalent)

Structure

• • Continuous covalent bonds from atom to atom

Properties (linked to structure)

• • Very high melting point
• • Very hard crystals (sand, diamond)
• • Insoluble
• • Non-conductors (exception graphite, graphene)

Examples

• • Silicon dioxide
• • Diamond
• • Graphite

Ionic bonding

Structure

• • Transfer of electrons
• • Formation of charged particles (ions) with full outer shells
• • Oppositely charged particles held together by electrostatic attraction
• • Giant structure

Properties (linked to structure)

• • Soluble in water (solute separates into solvated ions)
• • Hard brittle crystals
• • High melting point
• • Non-conductor when solid
• • Conductor in aqueous solution
• • Conductor when molten

Metallic bonding

Structure

• • Lattice of ions surrounded by ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons
• • Giant structure

Properties

• • Conductor
• • Usually high melting point (many exceptions)
• • Hard
• • Shiny

Skills

• Explain property of different substances by reference to the structure
• Recognise trends in property from given data
• Suggest bonding given property data

7. Fuels (combustion)

Knowledge and understanding

Combustion and fuels

Fuels provide energy to do work (engines)

The fire triangle

Equations for combustion of hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

Source of fossil fuels

Fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas)

Conditions for formation of fossil fuels

• • Heat
• • Pressure
• • Anaerobic conditions
• • Geological time scale

Refining fossil fuels

Fractional distillation of crude oil

Use of the different fractions

• • Gas fraction – fuels
• • Petrol fraction – fuels
• • Kerosine – Aircraft engines
• • Diesel – Lorries, boats, heating
• • Lubricating oils – lubrication
• • Tar and Bitumen – road surfaces

Explanation of chain length and boiling point (link to covalent bonding)

Environmental concerns, global warming, depletion of resources

Electrical fuel cells

Lithium batteries

Energy density

Nuclear fuels - Fission

Environmental concerns, spent fuel storage, radioactivity

Skills

• Balancing equations for combustion of a given fuel

8. Electromagnetism (magnetism, magnetic fields; electric circuits)

Magnetism

Knowledge and understanding

Magnetic fields

Compasses

Earth’s magnetic field

Lines of force

North and south pole

Magnetic domains in ferromagnetism

Induced magnetism

Magnetic field around a current

Solenoid field

Electromagnetics

Magnetic interactions – magnet & magnet; motor effect and left-hand rule

Induced current caused by changing magnetic field

Transformers use and basic function.

Electric circuits

Knowledge and understanding

Circuit components and diagrammatical representation

• • Wires
• • Bulbs
• • Resistors
• • Meters
• • Power supply
• • Transformers
• • Solenoids

Units of potential difference, emf, voltage

Units of current

Flow of charge in coulombs

I = Q/t

Ohm’s law, I=PD/R (PD and R determine I)

Definition of resistance R=PD/I

How to use and ammeter and voltmeter

Current rules in series and parallel

PD rules in series and parallel

9. Forces and energy (motion, motion graphs, Newton’s laws; energy transfer and transformation)

Forces and Motion, motion graphs

Knowledge and understanding

Contact and non-contact forces (gravity, magnetic, electrostatic, tension, reaction, pushes and pulls)

Resistive forces (air vs friction)

Dynamic and static friction

Air resistance increases with speed

Vector quantities

Resolution of force vectors

Momentum

Newton's laws

Newtons first, second law (non-momentum version)

Inertia (mass= resistance to changes in motion)

Basic idea of third law (2 objects interacting cause a force)

Force acting on a body causes acceleration, F = ma

When the acceleration is that of gravity, we use the symbol, g, in which W = mg, where W = weight in newton.

Acceleration due to gravity alone is the same for all masses.

Distance - time graphs

Speed against time graphs

Interpretation of areas and gradients

Use of kinematic equations

• v= s/t
• a = (v-u)/t v = u +at
• v² = u² + 2as
• s=(v+u)t/2

Energy transfer and transformation

Knowledge and understanding

Energy

Units of energy

Forms of energy

Energy stores

• kinetic energy, KE = ½ mv²
• Gravitational potential energy
• Nuclear potential energy
• Electrical potential energy
• Chemical potential energy and internal energy related to state
• Magnetic potential energy
• Elastic potential energy
• Thermal energy (KE of particles) (internal energy)

Energy transfer

• • Conduction
• • Convection
• • Electromagnetic radiation including infrared
• • Gravitational potential to kinetic
• • Electrical to kinetic
• • Electrical to thermal
• • Electrical to chemical
• • Thermal to kinetic
• • Kinetic to thermal (by friction)
• • Kinetic to electrical

Factors that affect energy transfer

Everything ends up as heat (kinetic motion of particles)

Nothing is transferred with 100% efficiency, heat is always lost

Sankey diagrams

Particular explanation of conduction, convection

Everything ends up as heat (kinetic motion of particles)

Nothing is transferred with 100% efficiency, heat is always lost

Sankey diagrams

Skills

• Relate the Particle theory to explanations of convection and conduction
• Determine amounts of energy using simple equation.
• Determine the amounts of energy transfer given efficiency
• Determine the efficiency of energy transfer from transfer data
• Use of Work(W) = Fs
• Use of Gravitational potential energy (GPE) = mgh
• Use of Kinetic energy (K.E.) = ½mv²
• Use of Electrical energy(W) = IVt
• Use of Power (P) = E/t: P = IVt/t = IV: P = ΔKE/t: P = ΔGPE/t: P = W/t

10. Interactions between organisms (food chains and webs)

Knowledge and understanding

Environment

Habitats

Population

Community

Ecosystem

Food chains

Knowledge and understanding

Energy flow through food chains

Trophic levels

Classification of animals based on what they eat

Food webs

Knowledge and understanding

Energy flow through food webs

Human impact on food webs

Nutrient cycle

Skills

• Drawing food chain and food web
• Interpreting food chain and food web
• Interpreting graphs

11. Metabolism (digestion, gas exchange)

Digestion

Knowledge and understanding

Nutrients

Carbohydrates

Fats

Protein

Digestion

Enzymes

Skills

• with enzymes: sketching shapes and interpreting graphs

Gas exchange

Knowledge and understanding

Aerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration

Gas exchange (diffusion)

Effect of exercise on the breathing rate

Factors affecting human health: smoking

Skills

Balancing chemical equations

Interpreting graph data such as incidence of cancer in smokers.

12. Systems (photosynthesis and respiration)

Living systems

• • Reproduce
• • Move
• • Expel waste matter
• • React to stimuli

Photosynthesis

Knowledge and understanding

Cells, tissues, organs and systems

Plant cell

Transport in plants

Osmosis

Photosynthesis equation

Skills

Balancing chemical equations

13. Cells (tissues, organs and systems; cell division; reproduction)

Cells and tissues

Skills

Draw cells scientifically and label them correctly

Organs

Skills

Identify organs by function and position in the human body.

Cell division

Knowledge and understanding

Understand the purpose of cell divison

Understand what happens in each phase and why

Skills

Recognising what phase the cell division process is in.

Compare the two methods of division.

Reproduction

Knowledge and understanding

Identify and give the functions of the reproductive organs.

Understand how fertilisation happens.

Understand the roles of hormones in the menstrual cycle.

Skills

Label scientific diagrams correctly